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Whereas in 2000 the [European Union] EU had heralded the knowledge-based society with its motto 'with more and better jobs and stronger social cohesion', the past decade has led to greater inequality and (at best) a status-quo in poverty. EU2020 seems to acknowledge this failure and aims to reconnect social inclusion with the knowledge-based strategy. This article discusses the education-inequality nexus and shows what strategic and institutional measures need to be implemented for a 'smarter' social inclusion policy: a better balance between knowledge-intensive and knowledge-extensive policies, an extension of EU anti-discrimination law in the field of education, integration of the [open method of co-ordination] OMC in education and training with the social OMC (including the social re-orientation of the structural funds), and peer learning focused on structural reform of [education and training] systems.

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Comparative research has often emphasized the importance of external barriers (e.g. enrolment costs) to explain inequalities in lifelong learning participation. However, individuals, in particular the low educated, are often not only prevented from participation by external barriers, but also by negative psychological dispositions about learning. In this article, [the authors] study how dispositions about learning as measured in PIAAC (2012) vary between countries. In particular, [the authors] assess how these cross-country differences are related to a number of design characteristics of the initial school system. [The authors] improve the cross-sectional research design by controlling attitudes among adults for attitudes collected among primary school students, making use of diff-in-diff and pseudo-panel-techniques. Overall, [the authors] find that strong external differentiation mechanisms, in particular tracking students at a young age and making extensive use of grade retention, are associated with less positive attitudes towards learning among adults. However, a number of methodological issues, related to small country samples and differences in data definition between surveys, calls for further investigation.

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An important issue in the design of secondary-level education is the balance between conveying general and occupation-specific (vocational) skills. On the one hand, vocationally oriented programmes, providing occupation-specific skills with immediate labour market relevance, have repeatedly been shown to secure safe pathways into employment. On the other hand, these programmes tend to put less emphasis on developing general knowledge, skills and competencies, including numeracy and literacy, which are foundational to lifelong learning. Hence, when the needs of the labour market change, employees who opted for a vocational track when they were at secondary school risk being less flexible in adapting to such changes later in their career. The authors of this article examine whether this results in a trade-off between short-term gains and long-term losses by considering differences in the labour market careers of vocationally and generally educated respondents in the 2012 Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Their results suggest that early labour market benefits of vocational specialisation decrease over time; the authors relate this to its lower ability to equip secondary school students - future employees - with skills for lifelong learning.

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The European Union has set a goal that by 2010, 12.5 per cent of the working age population should be taking part in lifelong learning. This participation rate has not yet been achieved in many countries. A partial explanation is the fact that the decision to participate depends on a variety of factors at three levels: the individual; the educational provisions; and the socio-economic context, including the regulating authorities. The authors of this article provide insights into the matching process in the educational market, discussing the relevant literature on this issue, including the modelling used in the research literature. In the final section of the article, the authors present an outline of an integrated model of participation in adult education, aimed at creating a better understanding of the complexity of participation and the factors that affect the three levels of the educational market.

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This paper reviews active labour market policies (ALMPs) implemented in Europe with the aim of improving the employability of disadvantaged youth and facilitating their integration into the labour market. The author begins with an examination of the concept of 'disadvantaged youth' and identifies obstacles to participation in labour market programs. The paper then provides a brief overview of the effectiveness of ALMPs and compares the level of effectiveness between programs employing various modalities, such as job training, recruitment subsidies and direct employment programs. Finally, the discussion focuses on recent trends and perspectives in policy where social protection is provided in exchange for individual commitment to integration through community service, training or participation in work experience programs. Research reveals that ALMPs are most effective when the most disadvantaged groups are selectively targeted and the author concludes with implications for the development of effective ALMPs in the future.

The volume of collected papers is indexed at TD/IRD 88.133. Show less

Participation in adult education is today generally considered an individual responsibility. However, participation is the result of a complex bounded agency between individuals, educational institutions and regulating governments. This paper explores the motives of 12,000 European adult learners in formal adult education in 12 European countries. Analysis shows consistent patterns comparable to welfare state typologies. Further exploration demonstrates that motives to participate in adult education courses can be interpreted in relation to the labour market, education and social policy in the country of participation.

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Against a background of falling demand for low-skilled labour, which impacts disproportionately on otherwise disadvantaged groups, this paper examines the structures and outcomes of vocational training systems targeted towards social groups with structurally weak positions within the labour market. Beginning from the observation of an over-representation in labour market programmes of young, male, short term unemployed with relatively high skill levels, the paper presents comparisons across Europe of the effectiveness of vocational training for risk groups, and outlines numerous issues of access, targeting and design. Show less

This article presents a comparative analysis of the determinants of early school leaving (ESL) at the country level. [The authors] decompose ESL rates into two components: a 'primary' rate reflecting unqualified school leaving from initial education, and a second component accounting for early school leavers who participate in training programs. Both may be influenced by structural and policy determinants. [The authors] examine how the ESL rate is affected by macro-economic and social context variables such as [gross domestic product] GDP/capita, growth, poverty, and youth unemployment, as well as system characteristics of the education system (such as legal school leaving age, grade retention, early tracking, and size of vocational education) and the labour market and social protection systems (minimum wages, unemployment insurance).

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